There is only one principal vanishing point and it is in K-direction.

Flood Gun: An electron gun designed to flood the entire screen with electrons.
Collector: Partly energized by flooding gun stores the charge generated by the writing gun.
Ground: Used to discharge the collector.

Aspect Ratio= Width / Height
Aspect ration of 1024 × 768 pixels image = 1024/768
= 4/3
Aspect ration of modified pixels image = 640/height
4/3 = 640/height
Height = (3*640)/4
Height = 480 Pixels

Fill area on raster systems:
TRUE: To determine the overlap intervals for scan lines that cross the area.
TRUE: To start from a given interior position and paint outward from this point until we encounter the specified boundary conditions.

MAYA 3D animation software offers a comprehensive creative feature set for 3D computer animation, modeling, simulation, rendering, and compositing on a highly extensible production platform. Maya has next-generation display technology, accelerated modeling workflows, and tools for handling complex data.

→PDF means portable document format.
→Portable Network Graphics is a raster-graphics file-format that supports lossless data compression.
→JPG/JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group. JPEG is usually known as JPG. It stands for Joint Photographic Expert Group, a joint working group of International Standardization Organization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). It is a standard method of compressing graphic images.
→A GIF is a computer file that is used on the internet for sending images, especially moving images. GIF is an abbreviation for 'Graphic Interchange Format'.

● Graphs can be displayed on a screen by writing character values into a special area of RAM within the video controller. ● Prior to cheap RAM that enabled bit-mapped displays, this character cell method was a popular technique for computer video displays.

Visibility problem in 3D graphics
1. Painter's algorithm
- A depth sorting method
- Surfaces are sorted in the order of decreasing depth
- Surfaces are drawn in the sorted order, and overwrite the pixels in the frame buffer - Subtle difference from depth buffer approach: entire face drawn
- Two problems:
• It can be nontrivial to sort the surfaces
• There can be no solution for the sorting order
2. Back Face Culling
- Back faces: faces of opaque object which are “pointing away” from viewer
- Back face culling – remove back faces (supported by OpenGL)
How to detect back faces
- If we find backface, do not draw, save rendering resources
- There must be other forward face(s) closer to eye
- F is face of object we want to test if backface
- P is a point on F
- Form view vector, V as (eye – P)
- N is normal to face F
3. View-Frustum Culling
- Remove objects that are outside the viewing frustum
- Done by 3D clipping algorithm (e.g. Liang-Barsky)
4. Ray Tracing
- Ray tracing is another example of image space method
- Ray tracing: Cast a ray from eye through each pixel to the world
5. Z(Depth buffer algorithm)
Reference: https://web.cs.wpi.edu/~emmanuel/courses/cs543/slides/lecture08_p2.pdf

Given data,
Pixel location starts from =(0,0)
Pixel location ends from =(100,100)
Address of the pixel= ?
Hint: Frame buffer array is addressed in row major order
. Step-1: Row major order is= 0+1((6-0)+101(10-0))
= 0+6+1010
= 1016

→ A translation process moves every point a constant distance in a specified direction. It can be described as a rigid motion.
→ A translation can also be interpreted as the addition of a constant vector to every point, or as shifting the origin of the coordinate system.

● Antialiasing removes jagged edges by adding subtle color changes around the lines, tricking the human eye into thinking that the lines are not jagged.
● The slight changes in color around the edges of an image help the line blend around curves, giving the impression that the line is true.
● These color changes are made on a very small scale that the human eye cannot detect under normal circumstances. In order to be able to see that an image has been antialiased, it would have to be magnified.

Step-1: Given data, Uncompressed pixel = 800*600
Step-2: Each of 8 bit = 800*600 *8
Step-3: Bit rate for transmitting = 800*600 *8 *40 =153600000 bits
Step-4: Here, they are given in Mbps. 153600000 bits =153.6Mbps

There are 3 tools for drawing geometric shapes
1. Rectangle(Rectangle tool)
2. Oval(Oval tool)
3. Polygon(Polystar tool)
Note: We are not using Option A,C and D for drawing heptagon.

Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs) one image or shape into another through a seamless transition. morphing means stretching or as part of a fantasy or surreal sequence. Traditionally such a depiction would be achieved through cross-fading techniques on film.

Step-1: To check the ratio [width/height= 1920 /1080 ]
Step-2: Ratio: 16/9.
Step-3: Using Pythagoras theorem (9x)​ ²​ +(16x)^{​ 2}​ =(22)^{​ 2}
x=19.17 inch

→ Motion picture, also called film or movie, series of still photographs on film, projected in rapid succession onto a screen by means of light.
→ When a motion picture film is projected on a screen at the rate of at least 16 illuminations per second but the commercial motion pictures uses 24 frames per second or 72 screen illuminations per second.
→ Film Technology standard is 24 frames per second, a three bladed shutter and some dreamy motion blur, all projected as shadow and light on the side of a wall.

●Give picture size with 640 by 480 resolution with 256 colors per pixel.
●This implies 640 * 480 = 307,200 pixels. Recall that 256 values requires 8 bits of computer storage.
●Hence (307,200 pixels) * (8 bits per pixel) = 2,457,600 bits of storage.
●A common method for selling computer storage is in 8 bit groupings called bytes.
●Hence the picture would require (2,457,600 bits) / (8 bits per byte) = 307,200 bytes of computer storage.

Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model (or models in what collectively could be called a scene file) by means of computer programs.

Options A,B and C are not interactive , it will provide only information to the people. Where as Computer game in which computer user should interact with the computer in order to play the game

→ Disc: A filled circle
→ Circle : An unfilled circle
→ square : A filled square

MPEG: The MPEG codec can only be used when the final video file will be in MPEG format (it is not compatible with other file types). It uses a lossy compression scheme (although it may be lossless at high-quality settings) and spatial and temporal compression. MPEG offers the best compression possible, but MPEGs are not yet as widely supported on the Web as other video formats.
Spatial compression:
Spatial (or intraframe) compression takes place on each individual frame of the video, compressing the pixel information as though it were a still image. JPEG, PNG and PICT files are an example of spatial compression.
It is known as the intraframe method.

Temporal compression:
It happens over a series of frames of the video. Temporal (or interframe) compression happens over a series of frames and takes advantage of areas of the image that remain unchanged from frame to frame, throwing out data for repeated pixels.
It is also called the interframe method.

Multimode Step-index: In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding

→ Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs) one image or shape into another through a seamless transition.
→ Morphing means stretching or as part of a fantasy or surreal sequence.

→ Deflate is a lossless data compression algorithm and associated file format that uses a combination of the LZ77 algorithm and Huffman coding.
→ An algorithm producing Deflate files is widely thought to be implementable in a manner not covered by patents.
→ This has led to its widespread use, for example in gzip compressed files, PNG image files and the ZIP file format for which Katz originally designed it.

A Group Of Pictures can contain the following picture types:
I picture (or) I frame (intra coded picture) – a picture that is coded independently of all other pictures. Each GOP begins (in decoding order) with this type of picture.
P picture (or) P frame (predictive coded picture) – contains motion-compensated difference information relative to previously decoded pictures. Each P picture can only reference one picture, and that picture must precede the P picture in display order as well as in decoding order and must be an I or P picture.
B picture (or) B frame (bi predictive coded picture) – contains motion-compensated difference information relative to previously decoded pictures. Each B picture can only reference two pictures, the one which precedes the B picture in display order and the one which follows, and all referenced pictures must be I or P pictures.
D picture or D frame (DC direct coded picture) – serves as a fast-access representation of a picture for loss robustness or fast-forward. D pictures are only used in MPEG-1 video.

Specular highlights on objects appear, because the light reflected from the object hits viewer. Sometimes, we are hit directly by the light and the highlight appears to be very intense, and sometimes we are hit so slightly, that we basically don't see the specular highlight. The strength of this highlight depends on the cosine of the angle between the reflected vector and vector taken from the point at object to the viewer's position:

Beam Penetration Method for displaying color pictures has been used with random-scan monitors. Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are coated on to the inside of the CRT screen, and the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor layers.
Shadow-mask Methods are commonly used in raster-scan systems (including color TV) because they produce a much wider range of color than the beam penetration method. A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the third emits a blue light.

Line caps helps in improving the appearance of the line by adjusting the shape of line ends There are three types of line caps:
1. But Cap 2. Round Cap 3. Projection Square Cap

Line Attributes: Basic attributes of a straight line segment are its type, its width, and its color. In some graphics packages, lines can also be displayed using selected pen or brush options.
AREA-FILL ATTRIBUTES: Basic attributes of an area-fill are
Fill Styles: Areas are displayed with three basic fill styles: hollow with a color border, filled with a solid color, or Wed with a specified pattern or design.
Pattern Fill
Soft Fill: the linear soft-fill algorithm repaints an area that was originally painted by merging a foreground color F with a single background color 8, where F + B.The current RGB color P of each pixel within the area to be refilled is some linear combination of F and B:
P = tF + (1- t)B
where the "transparency" factor t has a value between 0 and 1 for each pixel. RGB component of the colors
P = (P_R, P_C, P_R), F = (F_R, F_c, F_R), B = (B_R, B_c, B_B)
Text Attributes: Following are the text attributes:
Font : is the choice of font (or typeface), which is a set of characters with a particular design style such as New York, Courier, Helvetica, London, 'Times Roman, and various special symbol groups.
Font size
Font colour
Marker Attributes: A marker symbol is a single character that can be displayed in different colors and in different sizes. We select a particular character to be the marker symbol with
setMarkerType (int)
Hence Marker attributes are type, size and color.

Common color models defined with three primary colors are the RGB and CMY models.
RGB: color scheme is an additive model. Intensities of the primary colors are added to produce other colors. Each color point within the bounds of the cube can be represented as a triple (R, G, B), where values for R, G, and B are assigned in the range from 0 to 1. Thus, a color C, is expressed in RGB components as
C = RR + GG + BB
CMY: A color model defined with the primary colors cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY) is useful for describing color output to hard-copy devices. We can express the conversion from an RGB representation to a CMY representation with the matrix transformation:

Cavalier Projection: The direction of projection is chosen so that there is no foreshortening of lines perpendicular to the xy plane.
Cabinet Projection: The direction of projection is chosen so that lines perpendicular to the xy planes are foreshortened by half their lengths.
Isometric Projection: The direction of projection makes equal angles with all of the principal axis.
Orthographic Projection: Projections are characterized by the fact that the direction of projection is perpendicular to the view plane.

Ponits, lines and polygon lines are the basic building blocks of computer graphics

Write the steps required to scan - convert a circle using Bresenham’s algorithm.
Set the initial values of the variables: (h, k) = coordinates of circle center; x=0; y=circle radius r and d = 3 - 2r.
Test to determine whether the entire circle has been scan-converted. If x>y, stop.
Plot the eight points, found by symmetry with respect to the center (h, k), at the current (x, y) coordinates:
Plot(x+h, y+k) Plot(-x+h, -y+k)
Plot(y+h, x+k) Plot(-y+h, -x+k)
Plot(-y+h, x+k) Plot(y+h, -x+k)
Plot(-x+h, y+k) Plot(x+h, -y+k)
Compute the location of the next pixel. If d<0, then d=d+4x+6 and x=x+1. If d≥0, then d=d+4(x-y)+10, x=x+1 and y=y-1.
Go to step 2.

Rotation around a pivot point (2, 2) can be represented as:
(h, k) = (2, 2)