The clipping process in computer graphics is used for removing objects and lines. Clipping is a technique used to determine which portions of an object or line are visible and should be displayed within the boundaries of a given region or window. Any part of an object or line that falls outside this region is "clipped" or removed, ensuring that only the visible portions are rendered on the screen. This is a fundamental operation in computer graphics used to control what is displayed within a defined viewing area or viewport.

To scale a rectangle by a factor of 2 along the x-axis and 3 along the y-axis, you can apply the scaling factor to each vertex individually. The scaling operation multiplies the x-coordinate by 2 and the y-coordinate by 3 for each vertex. Given the original vertices of the rectangle: (0, 0) (0, 2) (3, 0) (3, 2) After scaling, the new coordinates are: (0 * 2, 0 * 3) = (0, 0) (0 * 2, 2 * 3) = (0, 6) (3 * 2, 0 * 3) = (6, 0) (3 * 2, 2 * 3) = (6, 6) So, the correct new coordinates of the rectangle after scaling are: (0, 0) (0, 6) (6, 0) (6, 6) The option that matches these coordinates is: (0, 0) (0, 6) (6, 0) (6, 6)

MAYA 3D animation software offers a comprehensive creative feature set for 3D computer animation, modeling, simulation, rendering, and compositing on a highly extensible production platform. Maya has next-generation display technology, accelerated modeling workflows, and tools for handling complex data.

→PDF means portable document format.
→Portable Network Graphics is a raster-graphics file-format that supports lossless data compression.
→JPG/JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group. JPEG is usually known as JPG. It stands for Joint Photographic Expert Group, a joint working group of International Standardization Organization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). It is a standard method of compressing graphic images.
→A GIF is a computer file that is used on the internet for sending images, especially moving images. GIF is an abbreviation for 'Graphic Interchange Format'.

The process of rotating the image by 1800 without changing its size is called Rotation

In order to check this, we need to consider the implicit equation:
F(x,y) = mx + b - y
For positive m at any given X,
If y is on the line, then F(x, y) = 0
If y is above the line, then F(x, y) < 0
If y is below the line, then F(x, y) > 0

→ A translation process moves every point a constant distance in a specified direction. It can be described as a rigid motion.
→ A translation can also be interpreted as the addition of a constant vector to every point, or as shifting the origin of the coordinate system.

Back Face Culling:
→ Back-face culling (an object space algorithm) works on 'solid' objects which you are looking at from the outside. That is, the polygons of the surface of the object completely enclose the object.
→ Back-face culling is not an example of an image-precision visible-surface determination.
→ Back-face culling can very quickly remove unnecessary polygons. Unfortunately there are often times when back-face culling can not be used. For example if you wish to make an open-topped box - the inside and the outside of the box both need to be visible, so either two sets of polygons must be generated, one set facing out and another facing in, or back-face culling must be turned off to draw that object.
1. Back faces: faces of opaque object which are “pointing away” from viewer.
2. Back face culling – remove back faces (supported by OpenGL).
→ TRUE: Z-Buffer is a 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit field associated with each pixel in a frame buffer that can be used to determine the visible surface at each pixel.

Perspective Projection :
Perspective projection is representing or drawing objects which resemble the real thing.
Perspective projection preserves the straight line.
In perspective projection, objects that are far away appear smaller, and objects that are near appear bigger.
Parallel lines do not remain parallel.
Distance and angles are not preserved.
Parallel Projection :
In this projection drawing objects looks less realistic.
In this projection parallel lines remains parallel.
Angles are not preserved in this projection.
It is good for exact measurements.

● Graphs can be displayed on a screen by writing character values into a special area of RAM within the video controller. ● Prior to cheap RAM that enabled bit-mapped displays, this character cell method was a popular technique for computer video displays.

Visibility problem in 3D graphics
1. Painter's algorithm
- A depth sorting method
- Surfaces are sorted in the order of decreasing depth
- Surfaces are drawn in the sorted order, and overwrite the pixels in the frame buffer - Subtle difference from depth buffer approach: entire face drawn
- Two problems:
• It can be nontrivial to sort the surfaces
• There can be no solution for the sorting order
2. Back Face Culling
- Back faces: faces of opaque object which are “pointing away” from viewer
- Back face culling – remove back faces (supported by OpenGL)
How to detect back faces
- If we find backface, do not draw, save rendering resources
- There must be other forward face(s) closer to eye
- F is face of object we want to test if backface
- P is a point on F
- Form view vector, V as (eye – P)
- N is normal to face F
3. View-Frustum Culling
- Remove objects that are outside the viewing frustum
- Done by 3D clipping algorithm (e.g. Liang-Barsky)
4. Ray Tracing
- Ray tracing is another example of image space method
- Ray tracing: Cast a ray from eye through each pixel to the world
5. Z(Depth buffer algorithm)
Reference: https://web.cs.wpi.edu/~emmanuel/courses/cs543/slides/lecture08_p2.pdf

Given data,
Pixel location starts from =(0,0)
Pixel location ends from =(100,100)
Address of the pixel= ?
Hint: Frame buffer array is addressed in row major order
. Step-1: Row major order is= 0+1((6-0)+101(10-0))
= 0+6+1010
= 1016

In computer graphics, z-buffering, also known as depth buffering, is the management of image depth coordinates in 3D graphics, usually done in hardware, sometimes in software
In a 3d-rendering engine, when an object is projected on the screen, the depth (z-value) of a generated pixel in the projected screen image is stored in a buffer (the z-buffer or depth buffer).
A z-value is the measure of the perpendicular distance from a pixel on the projection plane to its corresponding 3d-coordinate on a polygon in world-space.
Z-buffer requires 2 type of buffers to be filled: Depth buffer and Frame buffer
The amount of memory required by depth buffer in terms of bits is 512 x 512 x 24 = 6291456
The amount of memory required by frame buffer in terms of bits is 512 x 512 x 24 = 6291456
Total memory is required is sum of both depth and frame buffer memories = 6291456 + 6291456 = 12582912 bits which is equivalent to 1.5 MB(1.5x1024x1024x8)

→Gouraud shading is an interpolation method used in computer graphics to produce continuous shading of surfaces represented by polygon meshes.
→In practice, Gouraud shading is most often used to achieve continuous lighting on triangle surfaces by computing the lighting at the corners of each triangle and linearly interpolating the resulting colours for each pixel covered by the triangle.
→Phong shading refers to an interpolation technique for surface shading in 3D computer graphics.
→'Constant shading','faceted shading' or 'flat shading' is the approach applies an illumination model once to determine a single intensity value that is then used to shade an entire polygon, and holding the value across the polygon to reconstruct the polygon's shade.

→Projections of lines that are not parallel to the view plane (i.e. lines that are not perpendicular to the view plane normal) appear to meet at some point on the view plane.
→This point is called the vanishing point. A vanishing point corresponds to every set of parallel lines.

Explanation:
Given file size is 8M bytes= 8*1024**1024*8=83,88,608
From the options,
⦁ 800*600*8=34,80,000
⦁ 1024*768*8=62,91,456
⦁ 1280*1024*8=13,10,720
⦁ 1920*1440*8=22,118,400
From the above , option A and B are less than file size.
From that two , maximum one is option B.

The Z-buffer algorithm is a convenient algorithm for rendering images properly according to depth.
To begin with, a buffer containing the closest depth at each pixel location is created parallel to the image buffer. Each location in this depth buffer is initialized to negative infinity.
Since the algorithm processes objects one at a time, the total number of polygons in a picture can be arbitrarily large.

Steiner patches are triangular surface patches for which the Cartesian coordinates of points on the patch are defined parametrically by quadratic polynomial functions of two variables. So these surfaces are formed from biquadratic Bezier patches.

Phong shading is a per-fragment color computation. The vertex shader provides the normal and position data as out variables to the fragment shader. The fragment shader then interpolates these variables and computes the color

Step-1: To check the ratio [width/height= 1920 /1080 ]
Step-2: Ratio: 16/9.
Step-3: Using Pythagoras theorem (9x)​ ²​ +(16x)^{​ 2}​ =(22)^{​ 2}
x=19.17 inch

Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs) one image or shape into another through a seamless transition. morphing means stretching or as part of a fantasy or surreal sequence. Traditionally such a depiction would be achieved through cross-fading techniques on film.

There are 3 tools for drawing geometric shapes
1. Rectangle(Rectangle tool)
2. Oval(Oval tool)
3. Polygon(Polystar tool)
Note: We are not using Option A,C and D for drawing heptagon.

Step-1: Given data, Uncompressed pixel = 800*600
Step-2: Each of 8 bit = 800*600 *8
Step-3: Bit rate for transmitting = 800*600 *8 *40 =153600000 bits
Step-4: Here, they are given in Mbps. 153600000 bits =153.6Mbps

● Antialiasing removes jagged edges by adding subtle color changes around the lines, tricking the human eye into thinking that the lines are not jagged.
● The slight changes in color around the edges of an image help the line blend around curves, giving the impression that the line is true.
● These color changes are made on a very small scale that the human eye cannot detect under normal circumstances. In order to be able to see that an image has been antialiased, it would have to be magnified.

Options A,B and C are not interactive , it will provide only information to the people. Where as Computer game in which computer user should interact with the computer in order to play the game

●Give picture size with 640 by 480 resolution with 256 colors per pixel.
●This implies 640 * 480 = 307,200 pixels. Recall that 256 values requires 8 bits of computer storage.
●Hence (307,200 pixels) * (8 bits per pixel) = 2,457,600 bits of storage.
●A common method for selling computer storage is in 8 bit groupings called bytes.
●Hence the picture would require (2,457,600 bits) / (8 bits per byte) = 307,200 bytes of computer storage.

Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model (or models in what collectively could be called a scene file) by means of computer programs.

→ Motion picture, also called film or movie, series of still photographs on film, projected in rapid succession onto a screen by means of light.
→ When a motion picture film is projected on a screen at the rate of at least 16 illuminations per second but the commercial motion pictures uses 24 frames per second or 72 screen illuminations per second.
→ Film Technology standard is 24 frames per second, a three bladed shutter and some dreamy motion blur, all projected as shadow and light on the side of a wall.

→ Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs) one image or shape into another through a seamless transition.
→ Morphing means stretching or as part of a fantasy or surreal sequence.

Multimode Step-index: In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding

MPEG: The MPEG codec can only be used when the final video file will be in MPEG format (it is not compatible with other file types). It uses a lossy compression scheme (although it may be lossless at high-quality settings) and spatial and temporal compression. MPEG offers the best compression possible, but MPEGs are not yet as widely supported on the Web as other video formats.
Spatial compression:
Spatial (or intraframe) compression takes place on each individual frame of the video, compressing the pixel information as though it were a still image. JPEG, PNG and PICT files are an example of spatial compression.
It is known as the intraframe method.

Temporal compression:
It happens over a series of frames of the video. Temporal (or interframe) compression happens over a series of frames and takes advantage of areas of the image that remain unchanged from frame to frame, throwing out data for repeated pixels.
It is also called the interframe method.

→ Disc: A filled circle
→ Circle : An unfilled circle
→ square : A filled square

→ Compression efficiency of encoders is typically defined by the bit rate, because compression ratio depends on the bit depth and sampling rate of the input signal.
→ They may use the Compact Disc (CD) parameters as references (44.1 kHz, 2 channels at 16 bits per channel or 2×16 bit), or sometimes the Digital Audio Tape (DAT) SP parameters (48 kHz, 2*16 bit)

→ 2 channels of 16-bit audio at 44.1KHz = 2*16* 44100
= 1411200 bits/sec
= 172 kbyte/sec
→ Compression ratio = 172/16
= 10.75 :1
= 11:1 (or) 10:1

→ Deflate is a lossless data compression algorithm and associated file format that uses a combination of the LZ77 algorithm and Huffman coding.
→ An algorithm producing Deflate files is widely thought to be implementable in a manner not covered by patents.
→ This has led to its widespread use, for example in gzip compressed files, PNG image files and the ZIP file format for which Katz originally designed it.

A Group Of Pictures can contain the following picture types:
I picture (or) I frame (intra coded picture) – a picture that is coded independently of all other pictures. Each GOP begins (in decoding order) with this type of picture.
P picture (or) P frame (predictive coded picture) – contains motion-compensated difference information relative to previously decoded pictures. Each P picture can only reference one picture, and that picture must precede the P picture in display order as well as in decoding order and must be an I or P picture.
B picture (or) B frame (bi predictive coded picture) – contains motion-compensated difference information relative to previously decoded pictures. Each B picture can only reference two pictures, the one which precedes the B picture in display order and the one which follows, and all referenced pictures must be I or P pictures.
D picture or D frame (DC direct coded picture) – serves as a fast-access representation of a picture for loss robustness or fast-forward. D pictures are only used in MPEG-1 video.