Given data,
Pixel location starts from =(0,0)
Pixel location ends from =(100,100)
Address of the pixel= ?
Hint: Frame buffer array is addressed in row major order
. Step-1: Row major order is= 0+1((6-0)+101(10-0))
= 0+6+1010
= 1016

Visibility problem in 3D graphics
1. Painter’s algorithm
– A depth sorting method
– Surfaces are sorted in the order of decreasing depth
– Surfaces are drawn in the sorted order, and overwrite the pixels in the frame buffer – Subtle difference from depth buffer approach: entire face drawn
– Two problems:
• It can be nontrivial to sort the surfaces
• There can be no solution for the sorting order
2. Back Face Culling
– Back faces: faces of opaque object which are “pointing away” from viewer
– Back face culling – remove back faces (supported by OpenGL)
How to detect back faces
– If we find backface, do not draw, save rendering resources
– There must be other forward face(s) closer to eye
– F is face of object we want to test if backface
– P is a point on F
– Form view vector, V as (eye – P)
– N is normal to face F
3. View-Frustum Culling
– Remove objects that are outside the viewing frustum
– Done by 3D clipping algorithm (e.g. Liang-Barsky)
4. Ray Tracing
– Ray tracing is another example of image space method
– Ray tracing: Cast a ray from eye through each pixel to the world
5. Z(Depth buffer algorithm)
Reference: https://web.cs.wpi.edu/~emmanuel/courses/cs543/slides/lecture08_p2.pdf

● Graphs can be displayed on a screen by writing character values into a special area of RAM within the video controller. ● Prior to cheap RAM that enabled bit-mapped displays, this character cell method was a popular technique for computer video displays.

→ Deflate is a lossless data compression algorithm and associated file format that uses a combination of the LZ77 algorithm and Huffman coding.
→ An algorithm producing Deflate files is widely thought to be implementable in a manner not covered by patents.
→ This has led to its widespread use, for example in gzip compressed files, PNG image files and the ZIP file format for which Katz originally designed it.

A Group Of Pictures can contain the following picture types:
I picture (or) I frame (intra coded picture) – a picture that is coded independently of all other pictures. Each GOP begins (in decoding order) with this type of picture.
P picture (or) P frame (predictive coded picture) – contains motion-compensated difference information relative to previously decoded pictures. Each P picture can only reference one picture, and that picture must precede the P picture in display order as well as in decoding order and must be an I or P picture.
B picture (or) B frame (bi predictive coded picture) – contains motion-compensated difference information relative to previously decoded pictures. Each B picture can only reference two pictures, the one which precedes the B picture in display order and the one which follows, and all referenced pictures must be I or P pictures.
D picture or D frame (DC direct coded picture) – serves as a fast-access representation of a picture for loss robustness or fast-forward. D pictures are only used in MPEG-1 video.

→ Disc: A filled circle
→ Circle : An unfilled circle
→ square : A filled square

MPEG: The MPEG codec can only be used when the final video file will be in MPEG format (it is not compatible with other file types). It uses a lossy compression scheme (although it may be lossless at high-quality settings) and spatial and temporal compression. MPEG offers the best compression possible, but MPEGs are not yet as widely supported on the Web as other video formats.
Spatial compression:
Spatial (or intraframe) compression takes place on each individual frame of the video, compressing the pixel information as though it were a still image. JPEG, PNG and PICT files are an example of spatial compression.
It is known as the intraframe method.

Temporal compression:
It happens over a series of frames of the video. Temporal (or interframe) compression happens over a series of frames and takes advantage of areas of the image that remain unchanged from frame to frame, throwing out data for repeated pixels.
It is also called the interframe method.

Multimode Step-index: In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding

→ Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs) one image or shape into another through a seamless transition.
→ Morphing means stretching or as part of a fantasy or surreal sequence.

→ Motion picture, also called film or movie, series of still photographs on film, projected in rapid succession onto a screen by means of light.
→ When a motion picture film is projected on a screen at the rate of at least 16 illuminations per second but the commercial motion pictures uses 24 frames per second or 72 screen illuminations per second.
→ Film Technology standard is 24 frames per second, a three bladed shutter and some dreamy motion blur, all projected as shadow and light on the side of a wall.

●Give picture size with 640 by 480 resolution with 256 colors per pixel.
●This implies 640 * 480 = 307,200 pixels. Recall that 256 values requires 8 bits of computer storage.
●Hence (307,200 pixels) * (8 bits per pixel) = 2,457,600 bits of storage.
●A common method for selling computer storage is in 8 bit groupings called bytes.
●Hence the picture would require (2,457,600 bits) / (8 bits per byte) = 307,200 bytes of computer storage.

Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model (or models in what collectively could be called a scene file) by means of computer programs.

Options A,B and C are not interactive , it will provide only information to the people. Where as Computer game in which computer user should interact with the computer in order to play the game

● Antialiasing removes jagged edges by adding subtle color changes around the lines, tricking the human eye into thinking that the lines are not jagged.
● The slight changes in color around the edges of an image help the line blend around curves, giving the impression that the line is true.
● These color changes are made on a very small scale that the human eye cannot detect under normal circumstances. In order to be able to see that an image has been antialiased, it would have to be magnified.

Step-1: Given data, Uncompressed pixel = 800*600
Step-2: Each of 8 bit = 800*600 *8
Step-3: Bit rate for transmitting = 800*600 *8 *40 =153600000 bits
Step-4: Here, they are given in Mbps. 153600000 bits =153.6Mbps

There are 3 tools for drawing geometric shapes
1. Rectangle(Rectangle tool)
2. Oval(Oval tool)
3. Polygon(Polystar tool)
Note: We are not using Option A,C and D for drawing heptagon.

Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs) one image or shape into another through a seamless transition. morphing means stretching or as part of a fantasy or surreal sequence. Traditionally such a depiction would be achieved through cross-fading techniques on film.

Step-1: To check the ratio [width/height= 1920 /1080 ]
Step-2: Ratio: 16/9.
Step-3: Using Pythagoras theorem (9x)​ ²​ +(16x)^{​ 2}​ =(22)^{​ 2}
x=19.17 inch

MAYA 3D animation software offers a comprehensive creative feature set for 3D computer animation, modeling, simulation, rendering, and compositing on a highly extensible production platform. Maya has next-generation display technology, accelerated modeling workflows, and tools for handling complex data.

→PDF means portable document format.
→Portable Network Graphics is a raster-graphics file-format that supports lossless data compression.
→JPG/JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group. JPEG is usually known as JPG. It stands for Joint Photographic Expert Group, a joint working group of International Standardization Organization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). It is a standard method of compressing graphic images.
→A GIF is a computer file that is used on the internet for sending images, especially moving images. GIF is an abbreviation for ‘Graphic Interchange Format’.

10-bits per pixel it means we will have 2​ ¹⁰ ​ entries in color lookup table.
8-bits are allocated for each of the R,G and B components, means each entry in color lookup table is of 24-bits( 8-bits for each of the R, G and B component).
24-bits = 3 Bytes
So the size of lookup table is = Number of entries * size of each entry
So the size of lookup table is = (2^{​ 10}​ * 3) Bytes
the size of lookup table is = 3072 Bytes = (2​ ¹⁰​ + 2^{​ 11}​ ) Bytes

The homogeneous coordinates of the cartesian point (x,y) is (x,y,1) and the transformation Matrix is a 3×3 Matrix.
The image in figure ​ a ​ is translated(by 1 unit in x axis), scaled( 2 units in y axis) and rotated(90 degrees counterclockwise) to figure in b.

Perspective Projection​ :
Perspective projection is representing or drawing objects which resemble the real thing.
Perspective projection preserves the straight line.
In perspective projection, objects that are far away appear smaller, and objects that are near appear bigger.
Parallel lines do not remain parallel
Distance and angles are not preserved.
Parallel Projection :
In this projection drawing objects looks less realistic.
In this projection parallel lines remains parallel.
Angles are not preserved in this projection.
It is good for exact measurements.

Back Face Culling:
→ Back-face culling (an object space algorithm) works on ‘solid’ objects which you are looking at from the outside. That is, the polygons of the surface of the object completely enclose the object.
→ Back-face culling is not an example of an image-precision visible-surface determination.
→ Back-face culling can very quickly remove unnecessary polygons. Unfortunately there are often times when back-face culling can not be used. For example if you wish to make an open-topped box – the inside and the outside of the box both need to be visible, so either two sets of polygons must be generated, one set facing out and another facing in, or back-face culling must be turned off to draw that object.
1. Back faces: faces of opaque object which are “pointing away” from viewer
2. Back face culling – remove back faces (supported by OpenGL)
→ TRUE: Z-Buffer is a 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit field associated with each pixel in a frame buffer that can be used to determine the visible surface at each pixel.

→ When we are giving same height and width to a ellipse it will become circle.
→ API is a protocol intended to be used as an interface by software components to communicate with each other.
→ An API is a library that may include specification for routines, data structures, object classes and variables

→ kerning is the process of adjusting the spacing between characters in a proportional font, usually to achieve a visually pleasing result.
→ Kerning adjusts the space between individual letter forms, while tracking (letter-spacing) adjusts spacing uniformly over a range of characters.

Memory tube display components:
1. Connector Pins
2. Electron Gun
3. Base
4. Focusing System
5. Control Grid Voltage
6. X/Y Deflect
7. Phosphor
8. Collector
9. Ground
Note: Liquid crystal is not a component of memory tube display
.

TRUE: Persistence is the term used to describe the duration of phosphorescence. Phosphorescence is a process in which energy absorbed by a substance is released relatively slowly in the form of light.
TRUE: The control electrode is used to turn the electron beam on and off.
TRUE: The electron gun creates a source of electrons which are focused into a narrow beam directed at the face of CRT.

Scan converting a circle using Bresenham’s algorithm:
1 Initially X = 0 , Y = R and D = 3 – 2R

2. While (X < Y)

3. Call Draw Circle(X_c, Y_c, X, Y)

4. Set X = X + 1

5. If (D < 0) Then

6. D = D + 4X + 6

7. Else

8. Set Y = Y – 1

9. D = D + 4(X – Y) + 10

10. End If

11. Draw Circle(X_c, Y_c, X, Y) /* calling function call */

12. End While

Side effects of scan conversions are 1. Aliasing
2. Unequal intensity of diagonal lines
3. Overstriking in photographic applications
4. Local or Global aliasing

Write the steps required to scan – convert a circle using Bresenham’s algorithm.
Set the initial values of the variables: (h, k) = coordinates of circle center; x=0; y=circle radius r and d = 3 – 2r.
Test to determine whether the entire circle has been scan-converted. If x>y, stop.
Plot the eight points, found by symmetry with respect to the center (h, k), at the current (x, y) coordinates:
Plot(x+h, y+k) Plot(-x+h, -y+k)
Plot(y+h, x+k) Plot(-y+h, -x+k)
Plot(-y+h, x+k) Plot(y+h, -x+k)
Plot(-x+h, y+k) Plot(x+h, -y+k)
Compute the location of the next pixel. If d<0, then d=d+4x+6 and x=x+1. If d≥0, then d=d+4(x-y)+10, x=x+1 and y=y-1.
Go to step 2.

Rotation around a pivot point (2, 2) can be represented as:
(h, k) = (2, 2)