Decibel (dB), unit for expressing the ratio between two physical quantities, usually amounts of acoustic or electric power, or for measuring the relative loudness of sounds. One decibel (0.1 bel) equals 10 times the common logarithm of the power ratio

Sampling is the process of recording an analog signal at regular discrete moments of time.
sampling is the reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal. A common example is the conversion of a sound wave (a continuous signal) to a sequence of samples (a discrete-time signal).
Quantization in digital signal processing, is the process of mapping input values from a large set (often a continuous set) to output values in a (countable) smaller set, often with a finite number of elements.
The sampling rate fs is the number of samples per second.
The time interval between samples is called the sampling interval T_s=1/f_s

A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state devices such as relaxation oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It consists of two amplifying devices (transistors, vacuum tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors or capacitors.

● A multivibrator is a one type of electronic circuit, that is used to implement a two state system like flip-flops, timers and oscillators.
● Multivibrators are classified into three types based on the circuit operation, namely Astable multivibrators, Bistable multivibrators and Monostable multivibrators.
● The astable multivibrator is not stable and it repeatedly switches from one state to the other. In monostable multivibrator, one state is stable and remaining state is unstable.
● When the power is turned ON consider the flip flop is cleared initially, then the o/p of the inverter will be high. The charging of the capacitor will be done using two resistors R1& R2. When the voltage of the capacitor goes above 2/3 Vcc, then the output of the higher comparator will be High, it changes the control flip flop

A transceiver is a device comprising both a transmitter and a receiver that are combined and share common circuitry or a single housing. When no circuitry is common between transmit and receive functions, the device is a transmitter receiver.

Limitation of single-sideband modulation being used for voice signals and not available for video/TV signals leads to the usage of vestigial sideband. A vestigial sideband (in radio communication) is a sideband that has been only partly cut off or suppressed. Television broadcasts (in analog video formats) use this method if the video is transmitted in AM, due to the large bandwidth used. It may also be used in digital transmission, such as the ATSC standardized 8VSB.
Vestigial sideband (VSB) is a type of amplitude modulation ( AM ) technique (sometimes called VSB-AM ) that encodes data by varying the amplitude of a single carrier frequency . Portions of one of the redundant sidebands are removed to form a vestigial sideband signal - so-called because a vestige of the sideband remains.

●The generic term waveform means a graphical representation of the shape and form of a signal moving in a gaseous, liquid, or solid medium.
●For sound, the term describes a depiction of the pattern of sound pressure variation (or amplitude) in the time domain
● The temporal frequencies of sound waves are generally expressed in terms of cycles (or kilocycles) per second. The simplest waveform is the sine wave, since it has only one frequency associated with it. The sound waves associated with, say, music, are constantly varying.

● Reverberation, in psychoacoustics and acoustics, is a persistence of sound after the sound is produced.
● A reverberation, or reverb, is created when a sound or signal is reflected causing a large number of reflections to build up and then decay as the sound is absorbed by the surfaces of objects in the space – which could include furniture, people, and air.

Digital sampling is the recording of a sound using a string of numbers to represent the sound. 1s and 0s. These numbers are called samples.

→ An eight-bit D/A converter have 2​ ⁸​ -1 resolvable levels which is nothing but 255 levels.
→ Percentage resolution is (1/255)×100=0.39%

● The Bistable Multivibrator is another type of two state device.
● Bistable Multivibrators have TWO stable states (hence the name: “Bi” meaning two) and maintain a given output state indefinitely unless an external trigger is applied forcing it to change state.

Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles about every two years.

→ Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital format . In this format, information is organized into discrete units of data (called bit s) that can be separately addressed (usually in multiple-bit groups called bytes).
→ sampling is the reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal. A common example is the conversion of a sound wave (a continuous signal) to a sequence of samples (a discrete-time signal).
→ "fidelity" denotes how accurately a copy reproduces its source

→ The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the wave source.
→ The Doppler effect is observed whenever the source of waves is moving with respect to an observer.
→ The Doppler effect can be described as the effect produced by a moving source of waves in which there is an apparent upward shift in frequency for observers towards whom the source is approaching and an apparent downward shift in frequency for observers from whom the source is receding.

In MOSFET fabrication channel length is defined during Poly-Silicon gate patterning process

An ideal op-amp lead us to an op-amp with input resistance is infinite, so no current flows into either input terminal (the “current rule”) and that the differential input offset voltage is zero (the “voltage rule”).
Ideal operational amplification will have
➝ High input impedance ( R _in = ∞ ) and low output impedance ( R _out = 0 )

➝ R _in = ∞ , so zero input current
➝ Infinite voltage gain
➝ So, it is a voltage controlled voltage source device.

→ Microwave signals are often divided into three categories:
1)Ultra high frequency (UHF) (0.3-3 GHz);
2)Super high frequency (SHF) (3-30 GHz); and
3)Extremely high frequency (EHF) (30-300 GHz).
→ In addition, microwave frequency bands are designated by specific letters.
→ The term “P band” is sometimes used for ultra high frequencies below the L-band. For other definitions, see Letter Designations of Microwave Bands
→ Lower Microwave frequencies are used for longer links, and regions with higher rain fade. Conversely, Higher frequencies are used for shorter links and regions with lower rain fade.

In signal processing, independent component analysis is a computational method for separating a multivariate signal into additive subcomponents. This is done by assuming that the subcomponents are non-Gaussian signals and that they are statistically independent from each other.

● Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a digital scheme for transmitting analog data. The signals in PCM are binary; that is, there are only two possible states, represented by logic 1 (high) and logic 0 (low). This is true no matter how complex the analog waveform happens to be. Using PCM, it is possible to digitize all forms of analog data, including full-motion video, voices, music, telemetry, and virtual reality (VR).
● sampling is the reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal. A common example is the conversion of a sound wave (a continuous signal) to a sequence of samples (a discrete-time signal).
● Quantization in digital signal processing, is the process of mapping input values from a large set (often a continuous set) to output values in a (countable) smaller set, often with a finite number of elements.
● The encoder encodes the quantized samples. Each quantized sample is encoded into an 8-bit code word by using A-law in the encoding process.

A low-pass filter (LPF) is a filter that passes signals with a frequency lower than a selected cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The exact frequency response of the filter depends on the filter design.

The T-carrier system, introduced by the Bell System in the U.S. in the 1960s, was the first successful system that supported digitized voice transmission. The original transmission rate (1.544 Mbps) in the T1 line is in common use today in​ Internet service provider (ISP) connections to the Internet. Another level, the T3 line, providing 44.736 Mbps, is also commonly used by Internet service providers.
The T-carrier system is entirely digital, using pulse code modulation (PCM) and time-division multiplexing (TDM). The system uses four wires and provides duplex capability (two wires for receiving and two for sending at the same time). The T1 digital stream consists of 24 64-Kbps channels that are multiplexed.

JPEG( Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography. The degree of compression can be adjusted, allowing a selectable tradeoff between storage size and image quality. JPEG typically achieves 10:1 compression with little perceptible loss in image quality
MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group): It is a method of lossy compression for coding audio-visual information (e.g., movies, video, music).
Arithmetic coding is a form of entropy encoding used in lossless data compression. Normally, a string of characters such as the words "hello there" is represented using a fixed number of bits per character, as in the ASCII code. When a string is converted to arithmetic encoding, frequently used characters will be stored with fewer bits and not-so-frequently occurring characters will be stored with more bits, resulting in fewer bits used in total.

Transmission rate over a noisy channel:

→ H(X) is the amount of information per symbol at the input of the channel.

→ H(Y) is the amount of information per symbol at the output of the channel.

→ H(X|Y) is the amount of uncertainty remaining on X knowing Y.

The information transmission is given by:

I(X;Y) = H(X)−H(X|Y) bits/channel use

For an ideal channel X = Y, there is no uncertainty over X when we observe Y. So all the information is transmitted for each channel use: I(X;Y) = H(X) If the channel is too noisy, X and Y are independent. So the uncertainty over X remains the same knowing or not Y, i.e. no information passes through the channel: I(X;Y) = 0.

Capacity of a noisy channel:

Line coding→ Process of converting digital data to digital signal

Block coding→ Provide redundancy to ensure synchronization and inherits error detection

Scrambling→ Provides synchronization without increasing number of bits

Pulse code modulation→ A technique to change analog signal to digital data

A telephone conference call is an example of same time / different place type of communications.

Handoff is the mechanism that transfer an ongoing call from one base station to another.
→ Hard handover (or) Hard Handoff: Early systems used hard handoff. In a hard handoff, a mobile station only communicates with one base station. When the MS moves from one cell to another, communication must first be broken with the previous base station before communication can be established with the new one.
→ Soft handover (or) Soft Handoff: New systems use a soft Handoff. In this case, a mobile station can communicate with base stations at the same time. This means that, during handoff, a mobile station may continue with the new base station before breaking off from the old one.

The frequency reuse factor is related to cluster size then the frequency reuse factor=1/N

→ The amount of uncertainty in a system of symbol is called entropy. → Generally we can call entropy is disorder or uncertainty.

Global Positioning System(GPS) is a satellite based tracking system that enables the determination of person’s position.