8085 microprocessor has 8 bit ALU. It performs arithmetic and logical operations like Addition, Subtraction, AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

Status register(SR):
→ A status register is a collection of status flag bits for a processor.
→ The status register is a hardware register that contains information about the state of the processor. Individual bits are implicitly or explicitly read and/or written by the machine code instructions executing on the processor.
→ The status register lets an instruction take action contingent on the outcome of a previous instruction.
Interrupt service register(ISR):
→ Interrupt service routine(ISR) is a special block of code associated with a specific interrupt condition.
→ Interrupt handlers are initiated by hardware interrupts, software interrupt instructions, or software exceptions, and are used for implementing device drivers or transitions between protected modes of operation, such as system calls.
Interrupt mask register(IMR):
→ The Interrupt Mask Register is a read and write register.
→ This register enables or masks interrupts from being triggered on the external pins of the Cache Controller.
→ The IMR is used to disable (Mask) or enable (Unmask) individual interrupt request inputs. This is also an 8-bit register.
Interrupt request register(IRR):
→ It stores all the interrupt inputs that are requesting service.
→ It is an 8-bit register, one bit for each interrupt request.
→ It keeps track of which interrupt inputs are asking for service. If an interrupt input is unmasked, and has an interrupt signal on it, then the corresponding bit in the IRR will be set.
→ The content of this register can be read to know the status of pending interrupts.

Register indirect: It is specified implicitly in the definition of instruction. Register indirect addressing mode, the operands are stored in the memory. The address of the corresponding memory location is given in a register which is specified in the instruction.
Index mode: The address of the operand is obtained by adding to the contents of the general register (called index register) a constant value. The number of the index register and the constant value are included in the instruction code.

TRUE: An OODBMS avoids the“impedance mismatch” problem.
FALSE: An OODBMS avoids the “phantom” problem.
FALSE: An OODBMS provides higher performance concurrency control than most relational databases.
TRUE: An OODBMS provides faster access to individual data objects once they have been read from disk.

Functional Completeness Condition: It is the condition used to check the equivalence(The condition that all the data of the global relation must be mapped into the fragments) between global relation and its fragments after decomposition. When a relation is decomposed into fragments, both global relation and its fragments should be able to determine each other.
For decomposing a global relation, lossless decomposition is the necessary condition but functionally completeness problem is not a necessary condition.
A relation in BCNF may or may not be functionally complete

Here ‘B’ is common attribute but ‘B’ is not the primary key in any of the decomposed relations (R1 or R2). Hence this decomposition is not a lossless decomposition i.e., it is a lossy decomposition.
Hence, option (C) is correct.

EXCEPT operation is like subtraction operation.
EXCEPT : EXCEPT operator do not include duplicates i.e if there are duplicate copies of a tuple in a relation the EXCEPT will consider only one copy of that duplicated tuple.
EXCEPT ALL : EXCEPT operator includes duplicates.

Specialization: Specialization is a top-down approach, means higher to lower. Result of taking a subset of a higher level entity set to from a lower level entity set.
Generalization: Generalization is a bottom-up approach, means lower to higher. Result of taking the union of two or more disjoint(lower-level) entity sets to produce higher-level entity set.
Aggregation: It is treated as higher level entity sets and can participate in relationships. Mapping cardinalities: Number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a relationship set. An abstraction in which relationship sets(along with their associated entity sets) are treated as higher level entity sets, and can participate in relationships.
Mapping cardinalities: Express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a relationship set.

Lambda calculus→ Church, 1932
Lambda calculus (also written as λ-calculus) is a formal system in mathematical logic for expressing computation based on function abstraction and application using variable binding and substitution. It is a universal model of computation that can be used to simulate any Turing machine. It was first introduced by mathematician Alonzo Church in the 1930s as part of his research of the foundations of mathematics.
Lambda calculus as programming language→ Mccarthy, 1960
The first functional programming language and the second oldest programming language still in use (after FORTRAN), LISP began life in 1958 as a project led by John McCarthy at MIT. The aim was to create a system for programming computations over symbolic data, starting with an algorithm McCarthy had drafted for symbolic differentiation.
Lazy evaluation→ Wordsworth, 1970
Lazy evaluation was introduced for lambda calculus by Christopher Wadsworth. lazy evaluation (or) call-by-need is an evaluation strategy which delays the evaluation of an expression until its value is needed (non-strict evaluation) and which also avoids repeated evaluations (sharing).
Type classes→ Haskell, 1990
Type classes, as used in the functional programming language Haskell.

In computer programming, aliasing refers to the situation where the same memory location can be accessed using different names.

Here, variable x of func1 points to address of variable y.
And variable y and z of func1 points to address of variable x.
Therefore, y = y+4 ⇒ y = 10+4 = 14
and z = x+y+z ⇒ z = 14+14+3 = 31
z will be stored back in k.
Hence, x=31 and y will remain as it is (y=3).
Hence, answer is (B).

NOTE: Here "λ" means NULL.
Option(A) is not correct because it can generate strings like { aab, aaaab, aaaaaab,............}
S → S₁
S₁ → a S₁
S₁ → aa S₁
S₁ → aaA₁
S₁ → aab A₁
S₁ → aabλ
Option(B) is not correct because it can generate strings like { aab, aaaab, aaaaaab,............}
S → S₁
S₁ → a S₁
S₁ → aaA₁
S₁ → aabA₁
S₁ → aabλ
Option(C) is not correct because it can generate strings like { aab, aaaab, aaaaaab,............}
S → S₂
S₂ → aaS₂
S₂ → aaA₂
S₂ → aabA₂| λ
S₂ → aabλ
Option(D) is correct because it generates strings like {ab, aabb, aaab,..........}

Complement of a language L means the complement form of given language L will contain all String except the strings that L contains.
Here L= {aa,bb}
It means complement of L can contain { λ, a, b, ab, ba, aaa, aab, aba, bba,..................}
Hence Option (D) is correct.

The given identities are the closure properties of regular expressions. Following are few identities for regular expressions:
∅* = ε
ε* = ε
RR* = R*R
R*R* = R*
(R*)* = R*
RR* = R*R
(PQ)*P =P(QP)*
(r+s)* = (r*s*)* = (r*+s*)* = r*(sr*)*
Hence option(D) is correct.

Given data,
-- Transmission rate of a channel= 32Kbps
-- Total routes= 8
-- Packet ‘p’= 8000 bits
-- Total end to end delay=?
Step-1: Total end to end delay= (Total Routes * Packets ‘p’) / Transmission rate of a channel
= 8 * 8000 bits / 32 (Note: 1 kbps= 1024)
= 8 * 8000 bits / 32000 bps
= 2 sec

TRUE: High speed Ethernet works on optic fiber.
TRUE: A point to point protocol over Ethernet is a network protocol for encapsulating PPP frames inside Ethernet frames.
FALSE: High speed Ethernet does not work on optic fiber.
FALSE: A point to point protocol over Ethernet is a network protocol for encapsulating Ethernet frames inside PPP frames.

Step-1: Given data,
Slotted ALOHA transmits=200 bit frames
Bandwidth=200 Kbps

System produces=1000 frames per second
Throughput=?
Step-2: Slotted ALOHA formula S= G*e^-G
Frame transmission time=200/200 kbps=1ms
Here, G=1 and S=G*e^-G
=0.368 (or) 36.8%
System produces throughput =1000*0.368
=368 frames

Given data,
-- Bit rate(B)=8000 bps
-- Baud rate(Ba)=1000 bps
-- Signal elements(S)=?
-- Data elements(D)=?
Step-1: Total number of signal elements(S)⇒ Ba=B*(1/S) ⇒ S=(B/Ba)
= 8000/1000
= 8 bits/baud
Step-2: Total number of data elements(D) ⇒ S=log₂D ⇒ D=2^S
=2⁸
= 256 bits

Given data,
-- Message are encoded using values= 00 to 25(It means A=00,B=01,...Z=25)
-- e=3
-- d=7
-- n=33
-- Plain text message(P)=BAHI
-- Cipher text message=P^d mod n=?

Given data,
-- Hash table size(m)=10000
-- Hash function(h(K))= floor (m(KA mod1))
-- A=(√(5)-1)/2
-- key(K)=123456
-- location=?
Step-1: Hash function(h(K))= floor (m(KA mod1))
h(123456) = floor(10000 * (123456 * (√5 − 1) / 2) mod 1)
= floor(10000 * (76300.004115 mod 1)
= floor(10000 * (.004115))
= floor(41.15)
= 41

1) Including the initial call which means write the length of the spanning tree, a simple one it is. (Based on a particular graph)
2)Weight of the minimum spanning tree
= 4|2 - 1| + 4|3 - 2| + 4|4 - 3| + 4|5 - 4| .... + 4| n - (n-1) |
= 4n - 4

Prim’s algorithm→ O(ElogV)
Bellman-Ford algorithm→ O(V²E)
Floyd-Warshall algorithm→ O(V³)
Johnson’s algorithm→ O(VE lg V)

Syntax For Constructors:
Access_Modifier No Return_Type Class(...)
Example:
public static main(String [ ]args)
Constructor rules:
1. Constructors are always used with a new.
2. Have same name as that of Class
3. Does not have a return type
4. Can be Overloaded but not Overridden.

Method overriding can be prevented by using final as a modifier at the start of method declaration.

A class which is declared as abstract is known as an abstract class. It can have abstract and non-abstract methods. It needs to be extended and its method implemented. It cannot be instantiated.
Rules:
1. An abstract class must be declared with an abstract keyword.
2. It can have abstract and non-abstract methods.
3. It cannot be instantiated.
4. It can have constructors and static methods also.
5. It can have final methods which will force the subclass not to change the body of the method.

This tag is for address information, signatures, etc, normally at the top or bottom of a document. typically, it is italic and/or right justified or indented.
The format is:
< ADDRESS > text ... < / ADDRESS >

→ Java uses threads to enable the entire environment to be asynchronous.
→ Synchronous (or) Synchronized means "connected", or "dependent" in some way. In other words, two synchronous tasks must be aware of one another, and one task must execute in some way that is dependent on the other, such as wait to start until the other task has completed.
→ Asynchronous means they are totally independent and neither one must consider the other in any way, either in initiation or in execution.

Given data,
-- Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) = 30 days
-- Mean Time to Repairs (MTTR) = 10 minutes
-- Availability=?
Step-1: Given repair time in minutes, so we have to convert failure time in minutes.
30 days= 30 ∗ 24 ∗ 60 minutes
= 43,200 minutes
Step-2: Given options in percentages. We have to find availability in percentages.
Availability=(100-((10 / 43,200)∗100))%
= 100-0.023%
= 99.97%

Code and Fix → Write some code, debug it, repeat(i.e. ad-hoc)
Evolutionary prototype → Build an initial small requirement specifications, code it, then "evolve" the specifications and code as needed.
Spiral → Assess risks at each step; do most critical action first.
Staged Delivery→ Build initial requirement specification for several releases, then design-and-code in sequence
Waterfall → Standard phases(requirements,design,code,test) in order.

Wizards→ Step-by-step guides in application software
Templates→ Forms that provide structure for a document
Macro→ A series of commands grouped into a single command
Integrated Software→ A single program that incorporates most commonly used tools
Software Suite→ Bundled group of software programs

→ Software quality assurance (SQA) consists of a means of monitoring the software engineering processes and methods used to ensure quality.
→ The ISO quality assurance standard that applies to software Engineering is ISO 9001 : 2000.

Steve McConnell’s Code describes the characteristics of internal and external qualities
1. External Quality Characteristics: Correctness, Usability, Efficiency, Reliability, Integrity, Adaptability, Accuracy, and Robustness.
2. Internal Quality Characteristics: Maintainability, Flexibility, Portability, Re-usability, Readability, Testability, and Understandability.

TRUE: A version is an instance of a system, which is functionally distinct in some way from other system instances.
TRUE: A release is an instance of a system, which is distributed to users outside of the development team.
Build, version and Release terminology:
→ Build − executable or a library created by compiling source code.
→ Version − a software build. New version is a different build.
→ Release − (public release) a version intended for use by general population.

TRUE: The process table is resident all the time and contain information needed for all processes, even those that are not currently in memory.
TRUE: The user structure is swapped or paged out when its associated process is not in memory, in order not to waste memory on information that is not needed.

Safety algorithm:
1) Let Work and Finish be vectors of length ‘m’ and ‘n’ respectively.
Initialize: Work = Available
Finish[i] = false; for i=1, 2, 3, 4….n
2) Find an i such that both
a) Finish[i] = false
b) Needi <= Work
if no such i exists goto step (4)
3) Work = Work + Allocation[i]
Finish[i] = true
goto step (2)
4) if Finish [i] = true for all i

→ The time complexity of the safety algorithm, which checks whether a system is in safe state or not, is of the order of O(mn²).
Where, ‘n’ number of processes and ‘m’ number of resource types.

Given data,
-- Up time=75%
-- Down time=25%
-- How many times does this file server have to be replicated to give an Availability of at least 99% is=?
Option-A: Here 2 replications, it means down time is 25% equivalent 0.25.
According to 2 replications we have to multiply with 0.25*0.25=0.0625
Availability= 100-6.25%
= 93%
Option-B: Here 4 replications, it means down time is 25% equivalent 0.25.
According to 4 replications we have to multiply with 0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25
= 0.00390625
Availability= 100-0.0390625%
= 99.9609375%
Option-C: Here 8 replications, it means down time is 25% equivalent 0.25.
According to 8 replications we have to multiply with
= 0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25
= 0.0000152587890625
Availability= 100-0.00152587890625%
= 99.99847412109375%
Option-D: Here 16 replications, it means down time is 25% equivalent 0.25.
According to 16 replications we have to multiply with
= 0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25
= 0.00000000023283064365386962890625
Availability= 100-0.000000023283064365386962890625%
= 99.999999976716935634613037109375%
Hence, option-B is most suitable answer.

Given data,
-- Up time=75%
-- Down time=25%
-- How many times does this file server have to be replicated to give an Availability of at least 99% is=?
Option-A: Here 2 replications, it means down time is 25% equivalent 0.25.
According to 2 replications we have to multiply with 0.25*0.25=0.0625
Availability= 100-6.25%
= 93%
Option-B: Here 4 replications, it means down time is 25% equivalent 0.25.
According to 4 replications we have to multiply with 0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25
= 0.00390625
Availability= 100-0.0390625%
= 99.9609375%
Option-C: Here 8 replications, it means down time is 25% equivalent 0.25.
According to 8 replications we have to multiply with
= 0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25
= 0.0000152587890625
Availability= 100-0.00152587890625%
= 99.99847412109375%
Option-D: Here 16 replications, it means down time is 25% equivalent 0.25.
According to 16 replications we have to multiply with
= 0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25*0.25
= 0.00000000023283064365386962890625
Availability= 100-0.000000023283064365386962890625%
= 99.999999976716935634613037109375%
Hence, option-B is most suitable answer.

Min height of any tree is log_k|W|
For max height (since k>1, consider k=2) , hence it is CNF form and in CNF height is log₂|W|+1)
So, in general it should be log_k((|w|-1) / (k-1))

→ Huffman coding, Run length encoding and ZIg-zag scan is used to compress the image.
→ K-L Transform is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination of orthogonal functions, analogous to a Fourier series representation of a function on a bounded interval. The transformation is also known as Hotelling transform and eigenvector transform, and is closely related to principal component analysis (PCA) technique widely used in image processing and in data analysis in many fields.

→ Huffman coding, Arithmetic coding and ZIg-zag scan is used to compress the image/text.
→ Differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) is a signal encoder that uses the baseline of pulse-code modulation (PCM) but adds some functionalities based on the prediction of the samples of the signal. The input can be an analog signal or a digital signal.

→ If the histogram of an image is clustered towards origin on X-axis of a histogram plot then it indicates that the image is dark.
→ An image histogram is a type of histogram that acts as a graphical representation of the tonal distribution in a digital image. It plots the number of pixels for each tonal value. By looking at the histogram for a specific image a viewer will be able to judge the entire tonal distribution at a glance.
→ The histogram for a very dark image will have the majority of its data points on the left side and center of the graph. Conversely, the histogram for a very bright image with few dark areas and/or shadows will have most of its data points on the right side and center of the graph.